德国概况

德国概况（精选四篇）

德国概况 篇1

This paper is a country research based on management point of view.So most of the information involved will be business related.It will be divided into four parts.The first part will be the general description of the country Germany using the PEST (political, economic environment, socio-cultural environment and technological) business analysis model.The second part would focus on the industries in Germany that drives the country's economy.The main industries in Germany are Machinery Manufacturing, Electronics industry, Automotive industry, Chemical industry and Iron and Steel industry.The third part would specify the companies and their “innovative” initials.Three companies will be discussed in depth: Siemens, Volkswagen and BASF.The last part would be a summary of the problems and opportunities in Germany.

Part One: PEST

Political:

International trade is essential for every country.Globalization is the result of the increasing trade (in all forms) activities among nations.Thus, government regulations on trade is very important to have the country's economy in control in order to avoid unexpected financial crisis.This part will talk about different government regulations on varies aspects such as import restrictions, tax controls and labour restrictions.

Import restrictions: All German importers must have a Customs Number on file.The exceptions to these requirements are individuals, military shipments (must be specifically noted on all documents) , Non-EU residents and importers who only receive 3 or less shipments per year.Customs clearance is generally done electronically through the ATLAS System by the broker performing the clearance.The general import entry types are high value clearance.Duties & tax (excise tax occur) ; manifest low value clearance (simplified procedure for import clearance) for goods under 25 euro; single low value clearance (For sample shipments exceeding 25 euro) ; Summary customs procedure (Simplified procedure for frequent importers) ; bonded shipments (shipments transiting un-cleared, in bond to final consignee) ; AE 302 clearance (shipments of official use for U.S.Millitary)

Market control: for regular importers, there’re a list of things that are restricted or need approval licenses for entry into Germany such as used agricultural machinery, animals, birds and other livestock, asbestos, bees and honey, insects, whale products, wood, hops and hops products or any food products containing meat or milk products for personal consumption is prohibited unless specified the use for individuals.

Tax control: there are many types of taxed exist in Germany.The most common two are Income Tax and VAT.Other tax are Corporation Tax, Trade tax, Real Property Tax, Inheritance and gift tax, Payroll Tax, Net worth Tax and so on.Germany has reached tax treaties with about 90 countries to avoid double taxation.These agreements fall under public international law and aim to avoid that one taxpayer is charged similar taxed more than once on the same income for the same period.The basic structure of the double taxation agreements is the “Model Tax Convention” drawn up by the OECD.Because of the financial crisis, a declining depreciation for movable assets has been reintroduced for two years (2009-2010) .Businesses are allowed to carry back losses and to claim refund of paid corporation/income tax.As a result they get liquidity improvement.

Labour restrictions: the country is uneasy with its central position in European integration and is struggling with integrating immigrants, mainly from Muslim and eastern Eurasian countries, and the continued gap between the wealthier former West Germany and the former East Germany.Germany have applied to the European Commission for an extension to lift the restrictions for workers from Central and Eastern Europe in 2009, arguing that it could do serious harm to their labour markets.However, any extensions have expired on 30 April 2011 and no possibility of renewal.

Economic environment:

The German federal government plays a crucial role in the German economy, sometimes directly and sometimes indirectly through the effects of other policies on the economy.There are three principal figures responsible for economic policy are the chancellor, the minister for economics, and the minister of finance.The three positions have rarely been held simultaneously by members of a single party and are usually divided among two or sometimes three parties.Economic policy therefore has to reflect the interests of at least two political parties.

The German economy has its contradictions like other European countries on its domestic and EU policies.The economy is modern but old-fashioned.It is subject to national laws ad rules but is so closely tied into the EU that it is no longer truly independent.It has a central bank that controls European monetary policy and has a deepening impact on the global economy but that also insists on making its decisions mainly on the basis of domestic considerations.

One of the most important sectors for a country's economy development is the global trade.Germany has done a particular good job compared to other Europeans countries.It has maintained a good relationship with BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China) by providing advanced technology to their manufactures.In 2010, the exports in Germany were 1.146 trillion dollars, a 12.6 billion dollars surplus.

Socio-cultural environment:

Different culture can affect the way people do business.Germans are famous for their integrity, preciseness and formality.The general business appearance in Germany is very conservative: Businessmen wear dark suits; solid, conservative ties, and white shirts; women also dress conservatively, in dark suits and white blouses.Germans are strongly individualistic; their thought process is extremely thorough, with each aspect of a project being examined in great detail.German citizens do not need or expect to be complimented.In Germany, it is assumed that everything is satisfactory unless the person hears otherwise.Punctuality is necessity in Germany.Arrive on time for every appointment, whether for business or social.Being late, even if for only a few minutes, is very insulting to a German executive.In business situations, shake hands at both the beginning and the end of a meeting.

German is the official language.Approximately ninety-nine percent of the population speaks German.However, there are several different dialects in the various regions.Quite a few Germans learn English from a very young age, but it is better if someone can learn some Germans before entering the country.

Technology:

Technology is slightly mentioned in the economic environment session.Technology is a patent, it is crucial for a company's competiveness in global trade.According to the Technology Review published in 2005, Germany's greatest strength is its automobile industry (Vasek 2005) .In the years to come, many emerging technologies, from optical communication links to nanotech materials, will find their way into cars.Technological innovation will be critical to creating the opportunities that will lead German carmakers and their suppliers out of their current trouble.In particular, German carmakers are betting on computer-based assistance systems that could make driving safer and more comfortable.

Green technologies constitute a market that is growing globally.A wide variety of knowledge-based industries and services are setting standards to protect the environment.For this reason, Germany is presenting itself since May 2008 until October 2009 as a leading location for environmental technology within the context of the “German Initiative for Partnership in Green Technologies”.The aim is to increase co-operation between German and international research establishments and enterprises.Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) funds German research networks which are especially strong in fields such as: prevention/reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, air and water pollution control, waste management technologies, waste and recycling, secondary and renewable raw materials, land reclamation and land use management (Research in Germany 2010) .

In 1987-97 total research and development expenditures in Germany amounted to 2.4% of GDP; 2, 831 scientists and engineers and 1, 472 technicians per million people were engaged in research and development.In 1998, high-tech exports were valued at $63.7 billion and accounted for 14% of manufactured exports.The German national science and technology budget is applied to many areas like chemical, automotive and telecommunications.The current policy emphasis is on applying science and technology to enhance Germany's economic and competitive standing while protecting the nation's health and the environment.

Part Two: Leading Industries

According to the article “German Industries Rebuke Chancellor” from Wall Street Journal, manufacturing is the foundation of Germany's economy.Heavy Engineering industries are also prominent in the country.Germany is a member of the G-7 groups and is one of the richest countries in the world.The most important and prominent industrial region in Germany is Ruhr.Ruhr includes Dortmand, Duisburg, and the Dussel-dorf.It produces most the the nations iron and steel.Much of Germany's steel is used to make automobile, ships and tools.

West Germany has a high reputation in the world for the excellent design and fine workmanship of products such as the BMW, Volkswagen, and Mercedes-Benz cars.

The chemical industry is one of Germany's most important and includes companies like Bayer, BASF, and Hoechst.Machine and vehicle construction is another major industry, which includes aircraft manufacture, shipbuilding, plant machinery, and automobiles.

Electrical engineering, electronics, and office equipment are growing industries.While many industries are successful, traditional heavy industries like steel and shipbuilding are suffering a major decline.Competition from the Japanese and new technology are now reducing the profits from German production.The addition of the former East German population to the market economy has put the whole business in trouble.

Part Three: Leading companies and leaders

This part will focus on the specific companies and their “innovative” leaders who manage the company so well that they become the flagship of the industry in Germany.According to the Special Report byForbes.com, the top ten companies are:

1.Mercedes Benz – Automobile

2.Allianz – Insurance

3.Volkswagen – Automobile

4.Siemens – Electro

5.Deutsche – Telekom

6.Metro – Trade

7.Deutsche Bank – Bank

8.Münchener Rück - Insurance

9.RWE – Energy

10.BMW – Automobile

From the rankings above, we can see that there are three out of the ten top companies are in Automobile sector, one in Electro and one in Energy sector. From the top companies, I would like to choose 3 companies and talk about the business strategy and innovation reformation within the company.

Siemens AG:

Siemens AG is a German engineering conglomerate, the largest of its kind in Europe (Siemens.com 2011) .Siemens has international headquarters located in Berlin, Munich and Erlangen.The company has three main business sectors: Industry, Energy, and Healthcare; with a total of 15 divisions.The productions include manufacturing IT, Industrial goods, Telecommunications, Transportation, Control Systems, Healthcare, Energy, etc.

Innovation has always been one of the most important elements in Siemens’ business strategy.Innovations help to cut costs, increase sales and achieve higher earnings.Nowadays, those who fail to launch the right new product on the market at the right time will be punished more severely than ever before.Siemens came up with five ways of being “innovative”:

1.A Trendsetter in innovation: Siemens thinks that there are three types of innovation: first movers, follower and the “trendsetter”.Trendsetters are companies that succeed in establishing a new technology, de-facto standard or indispensable feature on the market.In order to become trendsetters, they have to be in strong technological position, and they also need to be well-positioned in disruptive technologies that can revolutionize the market in the future.Companies like IBM, Microsoft and Intel are such trendsetters.

2.Exploiting synergies: Siemens has introduced the top+ Innovation program within the top+ Business Excellence program.This program focuses on further increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of R&D activities as well as exploiting synergy potential more consistently.There are various ways for doing this, including benchmarking and best practice sharing, active patent management throughout the entire company, and the joint development of multiple-impact technologies or platform strategies.For example, it is possible to develop software as modules in a manner that enables its use in diverse applications, such as security technology, voice recognition, and image processing.Materials research can also lead to similar cross-functional applications.There include intelligent sensors, new types of displays, piezo-controlled values, turbine coatings, and miniaturized laboratories on a chip.An example of a platform strategy was the development of the syngo operating interface for use in a variety of medical technology systems.

3.Global networks: Siemens likes to rely on a global knowledge network, hundreds of cooperative projects with universities, their own R&D laboratories are all around the world, multicultural innovation teams, and the extensive involvement of various departments, customers and suppliers.

4.Navigation system for the future: Siemens have developed a method – the Pictures of the Future – for obtaining a clear idea of the best way to move into the future.Pictures of the Future combine the road mapping activities of the Groups with a visionary approach in which holistic scenarios of the future are systematically developed.This combination of the two procedures makes it easier to identify technologies with high growth potential and broad scope as well as anticipate future customer expectations and business possibilities.The important thing in this regard is that the Pictures of the Future incorporate the wealth of experience possessed by those who conduct the business of today.Without this advantage, it would not be possible to competently assess possible future developments.

Volkswagen:

Volkswagen is the original and biggest-selling marque of the Volkswagen Group, which now also owns the Audi, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, SEAT and Skoda marques and the truck manufacturer Scania.

“Innovation” is the core value of Volkswagen, in order to strengthen its brand value, they starts a country wide campaign titled “Innovations for Everyone”.The movement was initiated in India on August 18 and will run till November.“Innovation” happens to be one of the three main assets that the brand stands for; the other two are “responsibility” and “value”.

Every year Volkswagen came up with new ideas and new models on vehicles.This year, Hannover Messe ’11 is another star on the automobile market.The GradCAD's Sales Director Lauri Poldre talked about the principles of innovation in Volkswagen, engineering trends and car design.He said that they focus on two sides of innovation, “on one side we show here our entire idea of an energy efficient production process, on the other hand we show a compact car which is a new small Builli, which is a concept car, electrically driven which we’ll present to the German public today here” Then he talked about Volkswagen's engineering trends in production.In production it's going in the direction of energy efficiency with a sustainable production process.Energy efficiency needs a lot of small steps and renovations.It starts with the building isolation and ends up the change from air power tools to electronic tools where the power that they need for these tools is produced b solar modules that mounted on the rooftop of the building.

BlueMotion technology is one of another innovations that Volkswagen comes up with.It is the label Volkswagen gives to the most fuel-efficient car model in each class.BlueMotion cars are the real benchmark in their respective segments.They achieve this through an intelligent engine management with the start-stop system, the brake energy recovery system based on energy recuperation, improved aerodynamics as well as low rolling resistance tyres.All these technologies have one aim: to reduce fuel consumption as much as possible.BlueMotion cars are also setting new aesthetic standards.The special design of the interior and exterior as well as the famous logo on the radiator grille and rear differentiate BlueMotion cars from the standard models.

Part Four: Problems and Future of Germany

Germany maintains one of the richest countries after WW2, it got its economy on track by expanding its GDP 3.6% in 2010.By several measures, including keeping unemployment down (it is at its lowest since 1992) and the prosperity reflected in the growth of GDP per head, Germany was the star performer among the rich G7 countries over the past ten years.Yet the German model remains flawed in two important ways.First, it is too dependent on foreign demand, reflected in an excessive current-account surplus of 5% of GDP last year, while consumer spending is weak.Instead, Germany needs to rebalance its growth, with greater efforts to boost demand at home.More spending in Germany would also help struggling economies elsewhere in Europe.The second problem is Germany's poor record in improving productivity.In contrast to Germany's industrial advantage, its bigger services sector remains overprotected and inefficient.More competition and fewer restrictions would help.A rise in domestic spending and progress in productivity would help Germany to continue succeed.It can start with the expand of consumer spending, then focus on productivity enhancing reforms of services.

It is also an opportunity for Germany when recently, in May 1st, Germany finally opened the doors to workers of eight eastern European nations.Since the employment has dropped low now, Germany welcomes people to boost its job markets.Economy Minister Rainer Bruderle told the media that Germany needs more than 66, 000 IT specialists to boost its leading industries.

But Germany needs to pay attention to the endangered countries like Spain, Greece.European Union tied European countries together in economy; it brings more flexibility but dependency with each other as well.Germany will have to learn to work with other countries for mutual maximum profits and prepare for any changes in the regulations of EU.Keeping the balances in terms of the international trade and current account surplus, inflation of the currency are crucial to Germany's future.

参考文献

[1]Vaek, Thomas.“Germany-Technology Review.”Technology Review:The Authority on the Future of Technology.http://www.technologyreview.com/business/14297/

德国留学了解的教育概况介绍 篇2

1.综合大学：这类大学历史悠久，注重理论教育和研究，主要是培养学者和研究人员。学制一般为6年，毕业之后的学位文凭为硕士学位;

2.应用技术大学：这类大学注重实践，主要是为公司企业培养人才。学制一般为4年，毕业之后的学位文凭为硕士学位;

3.音乐艺术和体育高校：学制一般为6年，毕业之后的学位文凭为硕士学位。

德国大学传统上本硕连读，不设学士学位，攻读的第一学位即为硕士学位，学生通常经过4年(8个学期)的学习修完各专业，通过毕业考试和论文答辩，即可取得硕士学位。

德国的教育系统先进而完善，教学质量在国际上享有很高的.声誉，自1990年至今培养了10位诺贝尔奖得主。德国大学为免费教育，学生只需交纳75欧元/学期的注册费，教学用书全部可以从学校图书馆借阅。

近两年，德国政府对中国的留学生政策也有所放宽，以便让更多的中国学生能够顺利地进入德国大学接受高等教育。目前，在德国的各类中国留学生约有30000多人。

德国位于欧洲的中部，从地理意义上讲，德国被称作是“欧洲的心脏”;从经济意义上讲，德国是“欧洲的火车头”;从教育意义上讲，德国是“欧洲的典范”。

德国的大学均免收学费，对外国学生也同等对待。学生注册入学后，可以凭学生证在很多方面享受半价优惠。寒暑假和周末可以勤工助学，打工的收入不仅可以满足生活所需，还可以利用假期和周末去其他城市及周边的“申根协约”国家，如法国、意大利、西班牙、奥地利、葡萄牙等15国旅游观光，而无需另外办理签证。

浅谈德国生态农业概况 篇3

关键词：德国农业；生态农业概况

德国农业部部长艾尔瑟·艾格妮（Ilse Aigner）（BLEMV，2010）认为德国在过去十年中，农业生产力获得了翻天覆地的变化。农业不仅生产效率高，而且具有环境亲和力。这其中，技术进步对农业影响巨大，但这并非唯一因素。高技术设备的使用是通过良好教育的专业技术人员为前提的，因此才使德国农业水平达到一个非常高质量的水平。同时，德国在大幅提高农业生产力的同时，坚实走生态农业的路子，使农业可持续发展。因此德国形成了农业人才培养一现代农业一生物多样性的成功模式，对我国具有借鉴作用。

一、德国农业整体概况

2010年农业结构发展继续延续了多年的趋势：农业企业的数量在不断减少。从1999—2007年间，企业数量从大概472 000家减少到374 500家，下降了20.6%。在这374 000家企业中，从事粮农生产、林业和渔业的农业人员接近130万人，相比1999年减少了12.9%。但他们实现的毛利润却达到了200亿欧元左右。德国农业人口在不断减少睛况下，机械化程度却在不断提升，机械设施作业范围从1999年的36.3 hm 提高到2007年的45.3 hm。。在1950年一个农业工人产出的农产品只能养活10个人，到今天可以养活大约140人。同时，德国农业以家庭化经营为主，以家庭为单位形成小农场，小农业企业的经营模式。这提高了农业人员的归属感，有利于保持和维护现有的价值观，保持德国一贯的农业传统。同时通过农业企业与职业学校共同合作，德国农业职业教育也给德国农业提供大批高技术人才，推动企业发展。

二、德国的畜牧业

畜牧是农业企业的主要收入来源。德国农业中大约60%的收益来自出售畜牧业制品。在2009年肉制品总产量达到了525万吨。德国农业部（BLEMV，2010）认为高效的畜牧产业主要依赖于动物的福利化养殖，从而动物保护与生态农业可以相辅相成。德国奶牛的日均产奶量在18～25 L之间，年产量约为7 000 kg。这些鲜奶及奶制品可以满足21位公民的需求。一头奶牛的Et均产奶量可以制造：4盒黄油或者/2.2 kg奶酪以及/19 kg酸奶。表5可以看出德国牛奶产奶量在过去20多年问发生了质的变化，每头牛平均年产奶量从1985年的不到5 000 kg一下跃升至2008年的7 000 kg左右。这其中不仅有品种选育的进步，更有现代化饲养技术的更新。德国的奶牛场实行放养，部分地区在夏季还将奶牛赶至阿尔卑斯山的高山牧场放牧。这不仅提高了奶牛的生活福利也为优质奶源奠定了基础。同时德国还将高技术整合到奶牛饲养中，每条牛脖子上套上一个项圈，这是一个电子追踪器，它记录奶牛一起生命信息，通过计算机控制，能实现自动喂食、挤奶等功能，节省了很多人力物力。

三、德国的粮食产业

德国农业土地主要用于粮食耕作，其粮食产量不仅完全满足国内需求，而且还出口到欧盟各国。在2009年粮食作物的出口就达到了350亿欧元，主要是满足法国、荷兰和意大利的需求。同时德国整体农业收益在40 000～50 000欧元左右，保持了很高的收入水平。同时德国农业在过去十年间的生产力水平有了急速的提升。这集中体现在不断提高的单位公顷粮食产万多吨每公顷提高到了2008年的6.5万吨每公顷。占据耕地面积最多的是粮食种植，占据了整个耕地面积的59%，因此也是最重要的农作物。2008年粮食种植面积大约在700万公顷。德国的粮食产量在2009年获得了很高的产量，达到4 950万吨，粮食水平从优质达到非常优质的水准。据2003～2008年的长期数据跟踪调查，粮食产量增长了451万吨。

四、德国的生态农业

通过粮农业与林业活动，德国（BLEMV，2011）形成了独一无二的具有鲜明地区特色的耕作环境，即在耕作环境与原始环境中都保持了生物丰富的多样性。在那里生活着德国大部分现存的动植物（约72 000种）。德国具有丰富生物多样性的土地类型有草场群落生存环境、草场与牧场，它们得有超过850个典型的绿地物种；而贫瘠的草场得有大约1 000个物种。物种极其丰富的绿地群落生存环境包括干燥或半干燥的草场，它们拥有837种绿地物种。这些物种的潜在功能对与农业息息相关的气候变迁起着至关重要的作用。湿润的草场有392个绿色物种。它们对健康的动物食物及野生植物多样性的保持是至关重要的。为了保持德国生物的多样性，又促进德国农业的发展，农业环保项目起到了重要作用；在2007年该项目调查了全德约29%的农业用地，并致力于保持农场生物的多样性并为此投入了4亿欧元。

五、結语

德国农业概况教育最具特色的特点是模块化培养模式，它在时间和内容上脱离了单一的质量控制体系。它的质量控制是基于企业和工作岗位的框架需求，使教育紧贴需求，而无需做进一步的调整。很多情况下模块化教育能有效贴合新构架与组织模式，尽管这些新构架和模式常常产生新的变体而且经常在很短时间内就构建出来。德国农业已经准备好使职业教育质量控制体系不断适合新需求，并致力于构建贴近实际的创新意见。如果中央层面的联合介入与设定的预期目标超越了现行体系，不具有可行性，模块化培养模式还可以在理论上予以否决，以保持农业职业教育的可持续性与可接受性，从而不会影响实际教学效果。

参考文献：

[1] LEMV （a）.Die Deutsche Landwirtschafl Leistungen in Daten und Fakten.[OL].2010

德国北威州环保概况介绍及启示 篇4

关键词：德国北威州,监测,监管,介绍

德国人的严谨一方面源于他们有长远的规划, 无论是城市建设、交通运输、人才培养还是个人的工作计划都秩序井然。不要说城市建设等宏观方面的规划需经历5~10年甚至更长的筹备调查阶段, 就算是个人的工作日程安排一般都是上一年就制订好的。所以在德国凡事都要预约, 否则就很难成事。

1 顶层设计是关键

统一的领导、清晰的上下组织结构和百分之百的执行力度, 这就是德国北威州机构改革的最终目的。2008年起, 北威州实行大部制改革, 环境保护与自然、农业、消费保护等组织机构合并, 成立气候保护、环境、农业、自然与消费者保护部 (MKULNV) 。整个北威州分成杜塞尔多夫、科隆等5大行政区, 下辖大城市行政区及由若干个小城市组成的区域行政区, 各级行政区机构设置相同。水、监察、固废等原环保局行政部门被作为内政部门编入各级行政区政府;监测部门 (包括实验室) 则独立于各级政府, 受北威州自然、环境、消费者保护局 (LANUV) 领导, 负责整个北威州的大气、水环境及自然生态保护等方面的监测工作。其机构相当于我国的省级环境监测中心。

事实证明, 上层结构决定基层行事效率。北威州的大部制改革精简了机构设置, 理顺了上下级关系, 提高了行政效率。

2 环境监测是根本

对环保主管部门来讲, 监测就是“眼耳鼻”。监测数据的客观、公正和科学性直接影响行政主管部门的判断和决策。因而监测资源的合理配置和监测部门的工作效率至关重要。机构改革后的北威州自然、环境与消费者保护局下设8个部门55个处, 约1100名员工, 拥有数百个水、大气、土壤监测站, 实验室管理和自动监测站运行经验非常丰富。

2.1 实验室有序化管理

北威州自然、环境与消费者保护局下设4个实验室, 分布在波恩、利珀等4个不同城市。实验室分无机与有机两大组, 任务来源于管理部门的纵向管理需求, 主要负责例行监测、污染事故等样品的分析及一些重大科研活动。实验室拥有气相色谱-质谱联机、液相色谱-质谱联机和等离子发射光谱-质谱联机等大型先进仪器, 使用率高且管理有序。

2.1.1 工作计划性强, 管理人性化

实验人员非常注重工作的计划性及前瞻性, 主要工作任务一般提前一年就做好计划表。实验室的LIMS系统在管理方面发挥了极大作用, 该系统不仅便于操作, 且功能全面。通过该系统既可以了解全年的工作要求, 又可以随时掌握当前的工作状态及多方面的统计数据。

人性化管理主要体现在实行弹性工作制方面, 周1至周5, 除上午9点到下午3点为必须在岗时间外, 员工可自行调节其余工作时间, 前提是每周工作时间不少于40小时。

2.1.2 安全工作全面、细致

实验大楼走廊、办公室墙上许多地方都张贴着各类急救方法及各种化学试剂的物理性质、毒性强弱等简明易了的画报;所有员工 (包括短期实习人员) 必须接受实验室安全知识培训;进入实验室必须穿实验服, 带防护眼镜;一些危险性的实验不得单独操作。另外, 实验室配备紧急冲洗设施、眼睛冲洗笼头和火灾报警器等应急设备;每个化验室入口均装有消毒喷淋装置;实验室水池边都配有洗眼器等等。

2.1.3 人员、岗位设置科学合理

与我国不同, 德国实行的是人尽其用、因材施教的“双轨制”教育模式。所以实验室人员平均学历并不高, 很多操作岗位的实验人员仅毕业于职业学校的实验操作等相关专业, 但其独立操作能力强, 易于迅速投入实际工作。且基于自身的能力水平, 他们的工作期望并不高, 因而有着较强的责任心。但对于实验室的关键技术岗位, 人员素质要求则很高。比如部门领导及各小组的负责人等都拥有相应专业的博士学位, 掌握熟练的英语, 这些人不仅是学术科研带头人, 还是团队的优秀管理人才。

2.2 自动监测站规范化运行

北威州大气自动监测站最早建立于1981年。目前全州共有70多个大气自动监测站, 其中63个站点监测数据可在网上实时查询。在MKULNV、LANUV及实验室门口均设有大气自动监测站数据显示屏, 可供人们随时查询各站点的大气监测数据。各站点的必测项目为氮氧化物 (NOX) 和可吸入颗粒物 (PM10) ;而气象参数、臭氧、二氧化硫、碳氢化合物、PM2.5等均属于选测项目。由于一氧化碳浓度值连续多年远低于标准限值, 2005年已取消对该项目的监测, 同样的二氧化硫项目也仅在11个测点保留。

大气自动监测部门的日常工作内容包括监测数据的传输、分析, 监测报告的编写、发送, 监测仪器的维修、保养以及空气质量改善措施的制定等。该部门最大的特色是设立了维修与外勤组。维修小组负责自动站各种仪器的修理;外勤小组每天奔波于各自动站之间, 负责仪器的日常保养、维护、比对等工作。各自动监测站点的监测数据实行互联网实时传输。该部门不仅发布空气质量日报、月报, 还将所有测点的实时数据经数据管理中心汇总后在网上即时发布 (该过程约需1小时左右) , 公众可上网查询相关数据。不仅大气自动站如此, 莱茵河流域13个水质自动站全部数据也均可在网上实时查询。这对我国而言无论是技术上还是政策上都是一巨大的挑战。

3 环境监管靠创新

在德国, 政府部门只要出台政策法规就行了, 企业都会自觉遵守, 不需要监管。之所以这样是跟德国政府的科学管理手段密不可分的。原来隶属政府部门的许多行政职能都赋予了行业协会、合作社或咨询机构。以对水的管理为例, 在德国基本上每一条稍大一点的河流都有以河流名称命名的合作社或是协会, 如埃姆舍 (河) 协作社、利珀 (河) 联合会、鲁尔 (河) 联合会等等。协会性质是不以盈利为目的的公益性单位, 职能涵盖了污水处理、雨水管理、排水、防洪、水域维护、地下水管理等许多在中国仍属于各政府部门管理的管辖范畴。协会会员由流域范围内的企业、乡镇、矿山等组成, 入会是强制性的。由于从源头管控到末端治理全部由协会负责, 从而真正实现了一管到底。

以埃姆舍 (河) 协作社为例, 它的会员包括122家企业、19个乡镇和9个矿山。掌控着865 km2流域面积内总计240万人口的给排水, 同时还管理着4个污水处理厂、100多个排水泵的日常运行。另外, 雨水、防洪、地下水监测及管理都是它的日常工作范畴。强制入会的会员必须分摊协会的所有开支, 如果协会下属的企业或污水厂排放的废水超标的话同样会受政府的严厉处罚, 协会还会相应地增加其下年度的会费。

在废气监管方面, 各级政府还是尽量采用了在线监测的方式。水泥厂、电厂 (包括垃圾焚烧发电厂和污泥焚烧发电车间) 的主要污染指标都进行在线监测 (二恶英在德国同样无法做到在线监测) , 但排放限值要比国内的严格。以垃圾焚烧发电的排放标准为例, 北威州的垃圾焚烧发电厂废气排放中的烟尘、二氧化硫、汞等污染物排放浓度限值比国内的低好几倍 (见表1) 。

mg/m3

4 环境决策很谨慎

德国政府在制定环保政策的过程中, 不仅是颁布强制性命令, 而且十分注意经济手段的运用, 通过引导的方式, 循序渐进, 让企业、公众自觉自愿地遵纪守法。

1998年, 德国在产品税制改革中引入生态税, 通过对那些使用了对环境有害的材料和消耗了不可再生资源的产品增收生态税方式, 促使生产商采用先进的工艺和技术, 进而达到改进消费模式和调整产业结构的目的。2003年, 德国实施饮料一次性包装支付押金的规定, 对于矿泉水、啤酒和含碳酸的清凉饮料的玻璃、金属和塑料包装购买时收取押金, 在退包装时返还。押金抵押返还制度保障了这些材料的回收利用率。

相比之下, 我国在政策、标准订制方面则不严谨, 新政新标准与旧政策、旧标准脱节严重, 缺乏连贯性和延续性, 实施起来做不到循序渐进。不能落到实地的政策法令还不如不要出台, 一纸空文有损政府的公信力。

5 借鉴和建议

5.1 制定生活垃圾分类政策

德国一般将生活垃圾分为4种不同颜色, 即蓝、黄、灰、绿, 分别对应的是废纸, 废包装、有机类垃圾、生物垃圾 (花园里修剪下来的杂枝乱草等) 。由于我国的国情不同, 我国一般将生活垃圾分两类:灰和黄, 分别对应餐厨垃圾和废纸、包装等。因为目前垃圾自动分捡技术已经相当成熟, 对纸张、塑料、金属已无分类收集的必要, 加上国人的饮食习惯决定了有机类垃圾的产生量自然不会少。

5.2 制定行业政策, 确定各行业的废物利用率

在德国, 各种行业均有自己的行业废物利用标准, 特别是电器、电子产品等行业都有严格的废物重复利用标准。

而在我国国内, 这方面基本还是空白。目前对诸如家电下乡, 以旧换新的补贴政策虽说可以提高废旧家电的回收处置率, 但对政府职能部门来说却是多余的负担。作为政府, 需要的只是制定政策而不是插手细节, 回收处置等细节完全应该由产品的生产商来承担。例如对钢铁、玻璃、塑料制品、家电、电脑、手机等电子产品以法律形式确定其使用材料的重复使用率, 这样就必然促使生产企业回收自己的废旧产品, 形成产业从而使这项工作由政府行政行为转化为企业自主的市场行为。

5.3 提倡政府绿色采购

再生纸在德国政府机关、企事业单位被广泛使用。我国政府也应该制定相关规定, 鼓励机关、企事业单位在采购过程中偏向于再生产品的采购, 提倡使用再生纸、笔等再生用品。

5.4 扶持废物回收、加工再利用企业的发展

在德国从事此类活动的一般都是大中型集团企业, 它们有自己的垃圾发电厂和填埋厂, 垃圾收集、运输、处置各环节非常系统完善, 从而有效地整合了资源, 提高了效率。我国也应对这类企业实施政策倾斜, 在税收上给予优惠。

5.5 实施流域管理, 落实生态补偿

打破区域边界限制, 整合资源, 将流域内的工业、生活给排水以及雨水、地下水保护纳入统一管理, 一管到底。

5.6 押金制度

在德国, 可回收的塑料或玻璃瓶子在超市里都可以退还, 押金在购物时已算在帐单里, 这就促使人们自觉地回收这类包装容器。国内部分啤酒商厂举行的开瓶有奖活动, 其实也是变相地将押金制度融入其中, 因而建议此法在所有包装容器使用过程中推广。

5.7 环保标识

德国的许多商品外包装上都印有绿点标志“Green Punkt”, 说明该包装是可回收的, 隐含意是该产品是环保产品, 大家可以对其充分信任。我国也应该对产品的外包装实行环保标识认证管理, 以提高企业、公众的环保意识。

5.8 以旧换新, 以租代售