从句引导词

从句引导词（精选十篇）

从句引导词 篇1

1. whether可引导各种名词性从句, 即可引导主语从句、表语从句、宾语从句和同位语从句。if只能引导宾语从句, 这种情况时whether和if一般可互换。

Whether there is life on the moon is an interesting question. (主语从句, 不可用if)

The question is whether the book is worth reading. (表语从句, 不可用if)

The news whether our team has won the match is unknown. (同位语从句, 不可用if)

I wonder if (whether) he has come. (宾语从句, if和whether可互换)

注意:⑴连接词whether一般用来引导宾语从句。宾语从句置于句首时只能用whether。

Whether we can really help you, I don't know. (置于句首的宾语从句不能用if引导)

⑵引导主语从句时, 如果从句位于句首, 要用whether, 但如果it作形式主语, 则whether和if均可引导主语从句。

【高考模拟题】____we'll put off the sports meeting depends on the weather in the coming week.

A.If B.Whether C.What D.Which

2. whether后可直接跟动词不定式或与or (not) 搭配, if不能如此使用。

She doesn't know whether to get married now or wait.

Lucy doesn't know whether or not her mother is busy.

【高考模拟题】Elephants have their own way to tell the shape of an object and____it is rough or smooth.

A.不填 B.whether C.how D.what

二、that与what的用法与区别

在名词性从句中, what不但起连接作用, 而且充当从句的主语、宾语或表语成分, 意为“什么”或“所……的”, 相当于all that或the thing (s) that, 而that仅起连接作用, 本身无实际意义, 在从句中不充当任何成分。由that引导的主语从句常被放在句子后面, 句子前面用引导词it来作形式主语, 以避免头重脚轻。that只有在引导宾语从句时可以省略, 引导主语从句、表语从句与同位语从句时一般不能省略。

It is interesting that you should like him.

That they won the game was what we had expected.

注意:that在引导宾语从句时可以省略, 但也有例外, 下列情况一般不可以省略。

⑴当句中有两个或两个以上的宾语从句时, 除第一个宾语从句的that可省略, 其他的that皆不可省略。

I don't believe (that) he has ever read any of Shakespeare's works or that he has ever heard of him.

⑵it作形式宾语时, 由that引导的宾语从句的that不可省略。

I found it impossible that I silenced her.

【高考模拟题】A modern city has been set up in____was a wasteland ten years ago.

A.what B.which C.that D.where

I was surprised by her words, which made me recognize____mistakes I had made.

A.what B.that C.how D.from which

The other day, my brother drove his car down the street at____I thought was a dangerous speed.

A.as B.which C.what D.that

After Yang Liwei succeeded in circling the earth, ____our astronauts desire to do is to walk in space.

A.where B.what C.that D.how

三、that, why与because的用法与区别

这三个引导词在表语从句中使用时容易混淆。一般来说, 当主语是reason (原因) 时, 后面表语从句的引导词只能用that, 即“the reason…is that…”的句式。why引导表语从句时, 强调结果。because引导表语从句时, 强调原因。

The reason why we don't trust him is that he has often lied.

My mother was ill.That was why I was absent yesterday.

I was absent yesterday.That was because my mother was ill.

【高考模拟题】____she couldn't understand was____fewer and fewer students showed interest in her lessons.

A.What;why B.That;what C.What;because D.Why;that

四、whatever (whoever) 和no matter what (no matter who) 的用法与区别

whatever (whoever) 既可引导名词性从句, 相当于anything that (anyone who) , 也可引导让步状语从句, 相当于no matter what (who) , 但no matter what (who) 只能引导让步状语从句。

You may do whatever (相当于anything that) you like. (不能用no matter what代替whatever)

Whoever (相当于No matter who) did it, I didn't.

【高考模拟题】The poor young man is ready to accept____help he can get.

A.whichever B.however C.whatever D.whenever

练习题:

1.____surprised me most is how they finished the work in such a short time.

A.What B.That C.The thing D.Which

2.What do you think of his proposal____the government should pay attention to is politics rather than economy?

A.that that B.that what C.which D.what

3.A little girl is crying over there.Let's go and see____with her.

A.what the matter is B.what is the wrong

C.what is the matter D.what the trouble is

4.———____can I deal with such a difficult situation?———Take____measure you consider best.

A.How;whatever B.How;whichever

C.What;whatever D.What;whichever

5.____is known to all is that the earth is smaller than the sun.

A.What B.As C.It D.Which

6.I think you've got the point____a change is needed;otherwise you'll fail.

A.when B.that C.which D.this

7.____caused the accident is still a complete mystery.

A.What B.That C.How D.Where

8.It was____she said____disappointed me.

A.what;that B.that;that C.what;what D.that;what

9.The suit fitted him well____the color was a little brighter.

A.except for B.except that C.except when D.besides

10.____the manager said suggested that he hadn't decided____to have a talk with them or not.

A.What;if B.Whether;what C.What;whether D.That;whether

11.We have received information____Grant may have left the country.

A.when B.that C.which D.what

12.There is some doubt____John will come on time.

A.that B.whether C.which D.when

13.____they were in truth sisters was clear from the facial resemblance between them.

A.Why B.Whether C.That D.What

14.____has helped to save the drowning girl is worth praising.

A.Who B.The one C.Anyone D.Whoever

15.The travelers soon reached____was once an old temple, ____the villagers used as a school.

A.which;where B.what;which C.where;which D.what;where

16.It is known to us all____there is waste, there is pollution.

A.that B.what C.where D.that where

17.Tom was soon told____he found was not important to us.

A.that why B.what why C.why what D.why that

18.He didn't bring a torch with him when he went into the cave.That is____he failed to notice the marvelous painting on the walls.

A.the reason B.how C.because D.why

19.If you don't mind, I would like to see____, Jack.

A.where you live B.where do you live

C.you live where D.that where are you living

20.After____seemed about ten minutes the teacher gave the students the correct answer to the question.

如何确定定语从句的引导词 篇2

引导定语从句的关系代词有who, whom, whose, which, that； 关系副词有where, when, why。它们都在定语从句中担任句子成分。现分述如下：

1. 定语从句如果修饰人，常常用关系代词who，有时也用that(作主语时多用who)。例如：

He is a man who / that often helps others. 他是一位经常帮助别人的人。

如果这个关系代词在从句中作宾语， 就应当用whom或that， 但这种情况往往都可以把引导词省略，且在口语中可用who代替whom。例如：

Here is the man (whom / that / who) you would like to see. 这就是你想见的那个人。

值得注意的是，如果是在介词的后面就只能用whom。例如：

The boy to whom I spoke is my brother. 刚才和我说话的那个男孩是我弟弟。

如果表示“……的”时，就用who的所有格whose。例如：

Is there anyone in our class whose father is a doctor? 我们班有谁的父亲是当医生的吗？

whose的先行词也可是物。例如：

The house whose windows face the street is my uncle‘s. 窗户面朝街的那座房子是我叔叔的。

2. 定语从句如果修饰“物”，用关系代词that的时候较多，有时也用which。例如：

It‘s a computer which / that costs six thousand yuan. 这是一台价值六千元的电脑。

当这个代词在从句中用作宾语时，往往都会把它省略。例如：

The present(that / which) you gave me is very beautiful. 你给我的`那件礼物非常漂亮。

在介词的后面只能用which。例如：

This is the book about which they are talking. 这就是他们正在谈论的那本书。

3. 定语从句修饰一个表示时间的词时，用关系副词when。例如：

I will never forget the day when I met her. 我将永远不会忘记我见到她的那一天。

4. 定语从句修饰地点名词时，用关系副词where。例如：

This is the place where we lived for five years. 这就是我们曾经住过五年的地方。

5. 定语从句修饰一个表示原因的词时，用关系副词why。例如：

I know the reason why she didn‘t come yesterday. 我知道她昨天没来的原因。

★ where引导什么从句先行词是什么

★ and that引导什么从句

★ 宾语从句练习题

★ 宾语从句的练习题

★ 初中宾语从句练习题

★ which one引导什么从句

★ knowingthat引导的什么从句

★ 名词性宾语从句相关知识解释

★ when引导什么从句可以省略主语

同位语从句的引导词 篇3

（1）The thought that they could cross the whole continent was exciting. 他们可以横穿整个大陆的想法非常令人振奋。

（2）Some people have the idea that you can cross Canada in less than five days. 有些人认为你可以在五天内横穿加拿大。

（3）But they forget the fact that Canada is 5, 500 kilometres from coast to coast. 但是他们忘了加拿大东西海岸相隔5,500公里。

解析 以上三个句子中that引导的从句都是对前面划横线部分的具体内容的解释。

在抽象名词后面用连接词引导一个句子来解释这个名词的具体内容即为同为语从句。换言之，同位语从句与他所修饰的名词在内容上是同一关系，是对其内容的进一步说明。

通常用于连接同位语从句的抽象名词(也叫先行词)列举如下：

fact，news，idea，truth，hope，problem，chance，possibility，information，message，wish，promise，answer，evidence(证据)，report，explanation，conclusion(结论)，worry，question，thought，story，reason，impression(印象)，doubt(怀疑)，belief(信念；观点)，suggestion，advice，order(命令)，demand(要求)， requirement(要求)

注意 上述连接词中，suggestion，advice，order，demand，requirement后面的同位语从句谓语动词只能用“should + v.”。

同位语从句的引导词（从属连接词）：

1. 连接代词：

（1）that

当主从句之间逻辑意义完整时，用that引导同位语从句，that在句中没有任何含义，在从句中也不做任何成分，但此处that不能省略。

The news that they had won the game soon spread over the whole school. 他们比赛获胜的消息很快传遍了整个学校。

解析 they had won the game说明the news的全部内容，而且主从句的逻辑意义完整。因此应用that引导同位语从句。

The general gave the order that the soldiers should cross the river at once. 将军下达了命令，要求战士们立即过河。

解析 the soldiers should cross the river at once是the order的全部内容，且意义完整。因此应用that引导同位语从句。

（2）what/which/who(whom)/whose + n.

当主从句的逻辑意义不完整，需要加上“什么”、“哪个”、“谁”、“谁的”才能表达完整的逻辑意义时，就需要用“what/which/who(whom) /whose+n” 引导同位语从句，而不用 that。尽管由疑问词引导，但是必须用陈述句语序。

I have no idea what they are talking about. 我不知道他们在谈论什么。

解析 what they are talking about是idea的全部内容，同时主从句的逻辑意义不完整，需要加上“什么”才能表达出完整的逻辑意义，因此应用what引导同位语从句,引导词what在从句中作宾语。

He raised a question at the meeting who is to blame for the accident. 他在会上提出了一个问题，谁应该承担这次事故的责任。

解析 who is to blame for the accident是question的全部内容，同时逻辑意义不完整，所以用who引导同位语从句。

2. 连接副词

when，where，why，how，whether

①I have no idea where he lives. 我不知道他住在哪里。

解析 where he lives是idea的全部内容而且主从句逻辑意义不完整，应加“哪里”才能表达完整逻辑，因此用where引导同位语从句。

②I have no impression how he went home, perhaps by bike. 我记不清他是怎么回家的，也许是骑自行车。

解析 how he went home是impression的全部内容。而且主从句的逻辑意义不完整，根据perhaps by bike，应该用how引导同位语从句。

③It is hard for him to make a decision whether he should go to the party. 他很难决定是否要去参加晚会。

解析 whether he should go to the party是decision的全部内容，而且逻辑意义不完整，应该用whether引导同位语从句。

注意 （1）if也有“是否“之意，但是它不能引导同位语从句。

（2）尽管由疑问词引导，但是不能用疑问语序。

练习

1. 毫无疑问，抽烟对身体有害。

___________ smoking does harm to health. (doubt)

2. 因为生病， 所以他迟到了。

He was late for the reason___________. (be)

3. 老师建议我们做些运动。

The teacher gave us some advice ___________. (do)

4. 我不知道会议将在哪里举行。

I have no idea___________ . (hold)

5. 他们正在讨论是否应该改变原计划。

They are having a discussion ___________.(change)

6. 关于如何解决这个问题的建议值得考虑。

The suggestion ___________is worth considering. (solve)

7. 尽管他很努力，但还是没能通过考试。

In spite of ___________, he failed in the exam. (work)

8. 情况是这样的， 他五年前蹲过监狱。

The story goes___________ five years ago. (put)

9. 他可能不会来参加我的晚会了。

There is little chance___________. (come)

10. 他很难向我解释他为什么要泄漏我的秘密。

It is hard for him to answer my question___________ . (give)

答案

1. There is no doubt that

2. that he was ill

3. that we should do sports

4. where the meeting will be held

5. whether the original plan should be changed

6. how the problem should/can be solved

7. the fact that he worked hard

8. that he was put in prison

9. that he will come to my party

从句引导词 篇4

对于定语从句的研究已经很多 (成善祯1996、黄国文1996等) , 但从句法方面着手研究的并不是太多。本文旨在最简方案的框架内对定语从句的内部结构进行分析。

英语定语从句的引导词分为wh-关系词 (wh-relatives) , 如what、which、whom、等等 (例1) 和非wh-引导词 (non-wh-relatives) , 而后者又有两种情形, 一种是由that引导的定语从句 (例2) , 另一种是由零关系词 (zero relatives) 引导的定语从句 (例3) 。

(1) I met the man [who lives next door]in town.

(2) The book[that you lent me]was interesting.

(3) I enjoyed the meal[you made us].

对由wh-词引导的定语从句的结构分析有比较一致的意见, 即wh-词通过wh-移动到从句之首, 在原位置留下语迹, 而对非wh-词引导的定语从句却有两种不同的观点:一种认为由非wh-词引导的定语从句中不存在wh-移动, 而相反的观点认为由非wh-词引导的定语从句如同wh-词引导的定语从句一样存在wh-移动。针对两种不同的观点, 本文第二节探讨“that”一词的句法特征;第三节论述定语从句的中心语特征, 分析论证带有wh-词的定语从句中存在有wh-移动, 但由非wh-词引导的定语从句即由that引导的定语从句和由零关系词引导的定语从句中不存在wh-移动, 其[-wh]特征前移而非wh-词前移与中心词[-wh]特征核查, 从而满足经济原则, 保留that语迹效应理论的完整性和维护that作为标句语的共识。

1 That是一个标句语, 而不是关系代词

传统语法学家将that看做与who、which等一样的关系代词 (Quirk er al 1985:366 (参见Radford 1988) , 即that在深层结构中位于从句动词之后, 通过wh-移动到了从句句首, 即[spec.cp]位置 (例4) 。

(4) a. The book

b. The book [s′[s I put that on the table]]

Radford (1988) 指出这样的分析不对, that只可能是标句语, 而不是一个如同who、which等的关系代词, 理由如下:

一是That不能作介词补语, 而典型的代词 (如关系代词who、which) 可以作为代词补语。

(5) a the book [pp about which]they were arguing.

b the man [pp to who]he was talking.

二是典型的wh-代词带有具体的句法、语义特征, 而“that”只带有语法意义而无词汇意义, 因此应为标句语。

三是典型的wh-名词词组可以出现于限定性与非限定性定语从句中, 而标句语则只限于某一种, 如that只出现于后面跟限定性从句的句子中, for只出现于后面跟非限定性从句的句子中。

四是在that引导的定语从句中可以出现复制性代词 (resumptive pronoun) , 而由wh-词引导的关系从句中不可以出现这样的词, 如例 (6) :

(6) a.He is someone [that you never know whether to trust him or not]

b.*He is someone [whom you never know whether to trust him or not]

(6a) 与 (6b) 的对立表明, that作为一个标句语, 是没有经过wh-移动的, 也就是说其后没有因wh-移动而留下语迹。因此, 可以用him填充在动词trust的后面以满足投射原则和论旨关系准则。而b中的whom经过了wh-移动, 在原位置上留下了语迹, 再用him来填充一个已经被占有了的位置, 违反了投射原则与论旨关系准则。从而可以说that是一个标句语, 而非关系代词。

2 中心语特征

乔姆斯基在最简方案 (1992、1995) 中指出, 在疑问句中, 因为中心语C°带有[+wh]特征, 使得疑问句中的wh-词通过wh-移动到了[Spec.CP]位置以核查Co的[+wh]特征, 从而使句子在句法上得到完全解释 (Principle of Full Interpretation) 。Lasnik把这种因核查特征需要而进行的wh-移动叫做启发性的自身意义 (Enlightened Self-interest) 。例 (7) 中, 疑问词who因为要核查中心语的[+wh]特征, 由动词think后面移到了[Spec, CP]即句首位置上。

(7) Who do you think will say what?

其深层结构是:

(8) You think who will say what?

其树型结构图如下:

(9)

中心语Co的[+wh]特征通过带有[+wh]特征的who的移动而得到核查, 因而得到完全解释。

定语从句中的中心语特征是怎样的呢?Rizzi (1990) , Tellier (1991) 分析了所有的中心语的特征如下:

a.[+wh, -pred]疑问句

b.[+wh, +pred]带有wh特征的定语从句

c.[-wh, +pred]不带有wh特征或由that引导的定语从句

d. [-wh, -pred]陈述句

定语从句的算子—变量结构如下:

(10)

因为Rizzi的中心语C°的特征 (+/-wh) 与疑问句的中心语的wh特征重叠。Ning (1993) 把定语从句中中心语C°的特征定为[-wh, +pred], 即定语从句中的wh词不具有疑问意义。[+pred]特征也就是中心语选择一元谓语 (one-place predicate) 的补语从句。[+pred]特征使得关系代词作明显的wh-移动, 即从从句中的谓语后的位置移动到从句的[Spec.CP]位置, 使得中心语的[-wh]特征得到核查, 因此定语从句算子—变量结构图如下:

(11)

3 由wh词引导的定语从句

现在回到由wh词引导的定语从句的具体操作上, 由wh词引导的定语从句如同上图所述, 通过了wh-移动到[Spec.CP]位置上, 如例 (15) :

(12)

a. I know

b. I know the man [CP [IP Lord Emsworth will invite who]]

移动后的who在原位置留下了语迹, 从而满足投射原则和论旨关系准则。因此, 对于由wh词引导的定语从句的句法结构没有歧意, 但对于由非wh-词引导的定语从句的句法结构呢?

4 由非wh-词引导的定语从句

在上文中已经指出, that是一个标句语而非关系代词, 既然这样, 例 (4) 中that由动词后位置移到了[Spec, CP]位置的观点是错误的。that应在中心语的位置, 没有做任何移动。上文已经指出定语从句中的中心语具有[-wh, +pred]的特征, 所不明确的是that既然是一个标句语, 不是一个关系代词, 而例 (9) 中没有别的关系代词, 那么, 是什么在进行wh-移动呢?或者, 还是根本没有进行移动?一种比较一致的看法是, 没有wh-词引导的定语从句中有一个隐性的关系代词 (covert (i.e) empty relative pronoun (Quirk et al 1985) , (empty wh-operator) (Chomsky 1981) , (non-overt relative anaphor) (Stahlke, 1976;Huddles, 1984) 。这个关系代词统一由O标示。所不一致的意见是, 一部分人 (Radford, 1988;Kayne, 1972) 认为隐性关系代词也同wh-词引导的关系代词一样做了wh-移动。而另一部分人认为隐性的关系代词没有经过wh-移动, 而是留在原位置 (in situ) 。但他们对为什么隐性的关系代词没有作移动说明原因。我赞同后者的说法, 认为隐性的关系代词引导的关系从句中不存在wh-移动现象, 我们知道, 最简方案中的经济原则明确告诉我们, 当可以移动特征 (feature) 时尽量不移成分 (constituents) 当移动成分时尽量移动最小 (the smallest constituents) 和最短距离的成分 (the shortest distance constituents) 。据此, 笔者认为在由非wh词引导的定语从句中隐性关系代词没有做wh-移动, 是隐性关系代词的[-wh]特征移动到了[Spec, CP]位置以核查中心语的[-wh]特征。这种解释也保留了that-语迹效应, 即明显的标句语后面不可以跟语迹的理论。

(13) a. I know the man that Mary will invite.

b. I know the man oi that Mary will invite ti.

按照前者的观点, 也就是隐性的关系代词通过了wh-移动到[Spec, CP]位置, 例 (14a) 不存在问题, 即隐性的关系代词o由动词invite后位置通过wh-移动到了[Spec, CP]位置, 在原位置留下了语迹, 满足投射原则与论旨关系准则。同时, 隐性关系代词先行管辖 (antecedent-govern) 其语迹。但在 (14b) 中如果分析隐性关系代词o做了wh-移动, 则会违背that语迹效应。

(14) a. the letter that will surprise Poirot

b. the letter

Pesetsky (1982:306) 对隐性关系代词在定语从句中做主语进行wh-移动从而违背that语迹效应所作出的解释是:that在这种情况下不是平时的标句语而是象征一个关系代词, 即that结合了标句语和隐性关系代词的特征, 从而先行管辖其语迹。that在这种情况下由标句语变成了关系代词。我认为这样的解释不完善, 难以自圆其说:第一, 既然that语迹效应已成为不可违背的理论, 在其他情况下不允许, 而在隐性关系代词在定语从句中做主语时又开绿灯;第二, 将已经公认的that是一个标句语又加上了关系代词的特征, 不就是变相的承认that和who、which等一样可以做关系代词吗?

我们不如将定语从句中的隐性关系代词留在原位置, 而将其[-wh]特征前移与中心语上的[-wh]特征核查, 即特征移动而非成分移动。这样既保持了that语迹效应理论的完整性, 又符合经济原则。

结语

本文通过对that特性的鉴定和定语从句中中心语的特征分析, 遵照最简方案中的经济原则理论框架, 得出有wh-词的定语从句通过了wh-移动以核查中心语特征, 在原位置留下语迹以满足投射原则和论旨关系准则。而由非wh-词引导的定语从句中不存在wh-移动现象, 理由如下:1) 移动不符合经济原则;2) 移动违反that语迹效应理论;3) 移动推翻that为标句语的共识。

摘要：对于由wh-词引导的定语从句普遍的意见是因为中心语上-wh特征需要核查, 从而存在有wh-词的前移至SpecCP位置的现象。对于由非wh-词引导的定语从句却有两种意见:一种认为由非wh-词引导的定语从句中不存在wh-移动, 另一种认为由非wh-词引导的定语从句中存在wh-移动。从经济原则出发, 得出非wh-词引导的定语从句中不存在wh-移动。

关键词：wh-移动,wh-定语从句,非wh-定语从句,标句语

参考文献

[1]Cook, Vivian&Mark Newson.Chomsky s Universal Gram-mar:An Introduction.Oxford:Blackwell Publishers LTD, 1996.

[2]Gisborn, Nikolas.Relative clauses in Hongkong English.World English.2000, 19:357-371.

[3]Gutierrez-Rexach, Javier.The structure and interpretation of Spanish degree neuter constructions.Lingua1999, 109:35-63.

[4]Radford, Andrew.Transformational Grammar:A First Course.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1988.

[5]Radford, Andrew.Syntax:A Minimalist Introduction Course.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1997.

[6]Seppanen, Aimo.Dialectal variation in English relativiza-tion.Lingua, 1999, 109:15-34.

[7]成善祯.That能用来引导非限定性定语从句吗-[J].外国语, 1996, (6) :57-60.

[8]黄国文.英语的对比型强势主位结构[J].外国语, 1996, (4) :23-27.

[9]温宾利.自由关系分句中介词用法初探[J].现代外语, 1995, (2) :61-64.

[10]温宾利.wh-疑问分句与名词性关系分句的区别[J].现代外语, 1995, (4) :42-46.

[11]温宾利.wh-词与wh-分句[J].现代外语, 1996, (2) :49-53.

从句引导词 篇5

The fact that the Chinese people invented the compass is known to all．中国人发明指南针这个事实是众所周知的。（同位语从句）

The fact that he succeeded in the experiment pleased everybody．他实验成功这个事实使我们大家很高兴。（that只起连接作用）

Here comes the news that some tourists from America will come to our village．消息传来，说一些美国旅游者要来我们村。（that只起连接作用）

He has an idea that he can make the scientific instrument in a better way．他想到能用更好的方法制造这种科学仪器。（从句是idea的具体内容）

He expressed the hope that he would come to China a-gain．他表达了他要再来中国的希望。（从句是hope的具体内容）

The question when we will start the work is not decided．我们何时开始工作的问题尚未决定

You have no idea how worried I was．你不知道我是多么担心。

二、that在定语从句中必作句子成分

The fact that we talked about is very important．我们谈论的这个事实很重要。（定语从句）

The fact that（which）we talked about is very important．我们所谈论的那个事实很重要。（that在从句中作about的宾语）

The news that you heard is true．你听到的消息是真的。（that在从句中作heard的宾语）

The moon is a satellite that goes around the earth．月亮是围绕地球运转的一颗卫星。

The few points that the president stressed in his report are very important．总统在报告里强调的几点确实很重要。

I’ll never forget the day when I saw the Great Wall．我永远不会忘记我见到长城的那一天。

关于一个定语从句引导词的商榷 篇6

关键词：the way+从句结构、引导词判定、分解法、直接法

人民教育出版社等编著的《普通高中英语课程试验教科书必修2》的第一单元Cultural relics中有这样一个句子：In 1770 the room was completed the way she wanted. ① 不少的参考书和教辅材料都对划线部分进行了分析，如梁欣宽老师在《英语周报》人教课标版高一总第2878期第一版的“识文断句”栏目中做以下阐释: the way后接定语从句时，有三种形式：1）省略关系代词；2）用关系代词that连接；3）用in which 连接。另外，本句中the way前省略了in②。

本文贊同“the way前省略了in”这种说法，但是认为梁老师的解释不够准确、全面，不但在上述1）、2）用法上没有说清楚，而且没有点出在这个句子中到底是用了哪种用法。

一、关于第一个问题

定语从句引导词的判断通常可以采用分解法和直接法，使用分解法演示本句如下：将上面的句子分解为两个单句可以得到：

1. In 1770 the room was completed (in) the way.

2. She wanted the way.

再将两个单句合并可以得到：

3. In 1770 the room was completed (in) the way she wanted.

作为先行词的the way在第2个句子中充当宾语，这说明代表the way的引导词在定语从句中也应当充当宾语，充当宾语说明它应当是关系代词，这样的引导词有that, which, who, whom, whose, as等；并且引导词指物，因为它代指the way,这说明who, whom, whose都不合适；因为way前面并没有出现such或者same，所以as也不合适。所以关系代词that, which是合适的；因为它们充当宾语，所以还可以省略。因此，答案应该是which或that或者省略。

使用直接法也可以得到相同的结论。

在句子3中的定语从句部分中，因为wanted是及物动词必须有宾语，所以引导词必须在逻辑上补过去充当wanted的宾语；同样它因为代指the way而指物，再往下的讨论和结论就同上面一样了。

分解法通常把题干的主句或主要意思作为第一个句子，把从句部分作为第二个句子，并且让两个句子出现相同的名词或代词。分解法的关键在于要能够准确地分解出它的第二个句子。分解法的优点是准确率高，尤其是对于初学定语从句的人来说更为有效；但是，它的不足之处在于耗时多。

直接法的操作过程是这样的：先判断横线在引导定语从句时在从句中充当什么成分，然后根据各个引导词的功能进行筛选和取舍。直接法的关键在于如何判断横线在引导定语从句时在从句中充当什么成分，这要求学习者应该非常熟悉句法，词法（尤其是及物动词和不及物动词）以及各个引导词的功能，这对于初学定语从句的人来说不容易；但是，此法一经掌握，学习者解起题来速度会非常快。

二、关于第二个问题

至于第二个问题，通过上面的讨论就已经很清楚了，答案应该是关系代词which或that或者两者的省略。

由方驰、郭红主编的《中学教材全解高中英语必修2》一书对“In 1770 the room was completed the way she wanted. ”的解释认为：the way she wanted前的介词in被省略了，同时，定语从句she wanted的引导词that/which也被省略。③这恰恰证明了本文的论证及结论。

基于以上讨论，我们可以得到以下结论：

1、当现行词为the way，并且定语从句的引导词为关系代词（即充当定语从句的主语或宾语）时，该引导词有可能是that或which；当引导词充当主语时，引导词不能省略；当引导词充当宾语时，引导词可以省略。

2、当现行词为the way，并且定语从句的引导词为关系副词（即充当定语从句的方式状语）时，该引导词部分可以填：1）关系副词that; 2) 省略，即省略关系副词that；3）in which。

梁老师阐述中既没有提到关系代词which及其省略的问题，也没有提到关系副词that的用法，因此容易造成误解。非常巧合的是，网络上的关于介绍“the way+从句”用法的材料也存在着以偏概全的现象，如网名为lawrence_188和博客名为cartcart64的人都认为：

“‘the way+从句’结构在英语教科书中出现的频率较高, the way 是先行词, 其后是定语从句，这种结构有三种表达形式:1) the way+that；2)the way+ in which； 3)the way+从句(省略that或in which)。在通常情况下, 用in which 引导的定语从句最为正式,用that的次之,而省略了关系代词that 或 in which 的, 反而显得更自然,最为常用，如下面三句话所示,其意义相同：

I like the way in which he talks.

I like the way that he talks.

I like the way he talks.

这三个句子中的in which, that和that省略这三种情况都起到了状语作用，that显然是关系副词，在定语从句中作方式状语。”④⑤

可以看出这样的论述中缺少了对关系代词that和which使用情况的介绍，因此是不全面的。

参考文献：

[1]人民教育出版社等. 2007.06.《普通高中英语课程试验教科书必修2》. 北京：人民教育出版社.

[2]梁欣宽.2007.10.《识文断句》[N].山西：英语周报社.

[3]方驰、郭红. 2007.9.《中学教材全解高中英语必修2》. 山西:山西人民教育出版社.

[4] http://www.0514ren.com.cn/baike/200710/20071031075215.html

as引导的定语从句辨析 篇7

一、as引导限制性定语从句

关系代词as可以引导限制性定语从句, 在从句中可作主语、宾语或表语, 但as只用在“the same…as…”“such…as…”“so…as…”和“as…as…”结构中。例如:

I’d like to use the same recorder as is used in class. (as在从句中作主语)

He is such a man as is always ready to help others. (as在从句中作主语)

I am not so strong a man as I was. (as在从句中作表语)

She will marry as rich a man as she can find. (as在从句中作宾语)

辨析1.当先行词被the same修饰时用as与that引导定语从句的比较

as引导的定语从句表示“相似”意义, 即主句与从句所讲的是同类的人或事物, 而that引导的定语从句表示“同一”意义, 即主句与从句所讲的是同一个人或事物。例如:

She wore the same (=the same kind of) dress as her younger sis-ter wore. (她穿着跟她妹妹所穿的一样的连衣裙。)

She wore the same (=the very) dress that she wore at Mary’swedding. (她穿着她在玛丽婚礼上穿过的同一条连衣裙。)

辨析2.“such/so…as…”与“such/so…that…”结构的比较

在“such/so…as…”结构中, as引导定语从句并在从句中作主语、宾语或表语, 而在“such/so…that…”结构中, that引导结果状语从句并在从句中不作任何成分。例如:

His plan was such a good one that we all agreed to accept it. (that不作任何成分)

His plan was such a good one as we all agreed to accept. (as作accept的宾语)

He is so good a teacher as we all respect. (as作respect宾语)

He is so good a teacher that we all respect him. (that不作任何成分)

二、as引导非限制性定语从句

辨析3.引导非限制性定语从句的as与which的比较

关系代词as与which都可以引导非限制性定语从句, 在从句中可作主语或宾语, 区别如下:

(1) 指代不同。as一般不代替某个具体的名词或代词, 而是代表整个主句或主句的一部分, 而which既可以代替某个具体的名词或代词, 又可以代表整个主句或主句的一部分。例如:

Diaoyu Island belongs to China, as/which is known to all. (as/which代替整个主句)

Anyway, that evening, which I’ll tell you more about later, Iended up staying at Richard’s place. (which代替先行词that evening, 不可用as)

(2) 位置不同。as引导的非限制性定语从句可放在主句之前, 也可以放在主句之后, 有时还可以放在主句的中间, 而which引导的非限制性定语从句不能放在句首。例如:

As can be seen, oceans cover more than 70%of the earth. (不可用which)

The teacher is from Shanghai, as/which they know from her accent.

(3) 意义不同。as引导的非限制性定语从句意义与主句的意义一致, 从句内容是意料之中或合情合理的, as常译为“正如……”“像……”等, 而非限制性定语从句的意义与主句的意义不一致或者从句为否定意义时只能用which, which常译为“这一点”“这件事”等。例如:

He got married again, as/which was expected. (他又结婚了, 这是意料之中的事。)

He got married again, which was unexpected. (他又结婚了, 这是出乎意料的事。不可用as)

(4) as与which的互换。当非限制性定语从句的意义与主句意义一致时, 若关系代词在从句中做宾语, as与which可以互换, 若关系代词在从句中做主语, 从句谓语中有系动词时as与which可以互换, 但从句谓语中没有系动词时只用which。例如:

The teacher is from Beijing, as/which they know from his accent.

He failed in the exam, as/which was expected.

Tom made rapid progress, which delighted us. (不可用as)

(5) as引导的非限制性定语从句谓语动词含有be或者是被动语态时, 形成了不少固定说法。例如:

as we all know正如我们都知道的那样。

as you know正如你知道的那样。

as everybody knows正如每个人知道的那样。

as we all can see正如我们都能看到的那样。

as anybody can see正如任何人能够看到的那样。

as is mentioned above正如上面提到的那样。

as often happens正如经常发生的那样。

as is often the case正如经常的情况一样。

as has been said before如上所述。

as may be imagined正如可以想象出来的那样。

as is well known众所周知。

as is known to all/everybody正如大家知道的那样。

as was expected正如预料的那样。

as has been already pointed out正如已经指出的那样。

谈谈as引导的状语从句 篇8

1. 主句谓语动词所表示的动作在从句谓语动词所表示的动作完成之前发生。例如:

As I left the house, I remembered the key.离开房子时, 我记得带钥匙。

2. 主句谓语动词和从句谓语动词表示的是两个平行的动作。例如:

As he talked on, he got more and more excited.他谈着的时候越来越兴奋。

此外, as还能和soon及另一个as一起构成短语连词as soon as (一……就) 来引导时间状语从句, 起强调作用。例如:

He started as soon as he received the news.他一听到消息就立刻动身了。

注: (1) 时间状语从句和条件状语从句中表示将来的动作, 按英语习惯不用一般将来时, 而用一般现在时。如果是表示过去将来的动作, 则要用一般过去时, 不用一般过去将来时。

(2) as, when, while引导时间状语从句的区别在于:用as的复合句, 主句和从句的动作往往几乎同时发生;用when的复合句, 主句和从句动作可能同时发生, 也可能是主句的动作发生在从句的动作之后;用while的复合句, 强调主句和从句的动作同时发生。

二、as引导原因状语从句, 相当于since, seeing that (因为, 既然) 。例如:

As he is a party member, he is always strict with himself.因为他是党员, 所以他总是严格要求自己。

注:as表示原因与because, since和for表示原因时的区别主要有以下两点:

(1) 就语气说, as比because, since都要轻些, 四个词中以because的语气最强, for最弱, 而且在for面前要用逗号。

(2) 就句子分类来说, for是并列连词, 它所在的句子是并列句, 其他三个是从属连词, 它们所在的句子是复合句。

此外, 在回答why的问题时, 只用because。

三、as引导一个比较状语从句, 用在as...as, not so/as...as的结构中, 意思是“像……一样”。这类从句, 一般是不完全句, 从句中一些成分没有表示出来。例如:

It is as easy as ABC.这件事极其容易。

四、as引导一个方式状语从句, 意思是“如”、“像”。例如:

Do it as I do it.照我的样子做这件事。

看看这个句子:She can’t cook like her mother does. (她的烹饪技术不如她母亲。) 在正式场合, 这种用法被认为是不正确的。因为只有as才能引导一个从句。不过like的这种用法已逐渐被人们接受。

此外, as还能与if或though构成短语连词as if或as though (好像, 犹如) 来引导方式状语从句。例如:

He speaks English as if/though he were an English-man他说起英语来就像个英国人似的。

注:as if或as though引导的方式状语从句的谓语动词通常要用虚拟语气。

五、as引导条件状语从句, 由as与long和另一个as构成短语as long as。as long as引导的状语从句, 有两种情况:一种表示时间, 另一种表示条件。例如:

(1) You shall never enter the house as long as I live in it.在我住在这里的时候, 你休想进入这个房子。

(2) You can do what you like as long as you don’t break the law.你可以随意行事, 只要你不违法。

六、as引导让步状语从句, 相当于although开头的句子, 其用法有以下六种结构形式, 它通常将所强调的成分置于as从句之首。

1. 形容词+as从句。例如:

Young as he is, he knows a lot.他虽然年轻, 但知道得多。

2. 副词+as从句。例如:

Hard as she studied, she still failed.虽然她学习努力, 但她仍然没有通过考试。

3.-ed分词+as从句。例如:

Disabled as he is, he tries his best to serve the people.虽然他残废了, 但还是尽最大努力为人民服务。

4.-ing分词 (+名词或副词) +as从句。例如:

Raining hard as it is, I am going out for a walk.虽然正在下大雨, 但我还是要出去散步。

5. 名词+as从句, 一般省略名词前的冠词。例如:

Child as he is, he can do it.他虽然是个孩子, 但能做那件事。

6. 动词 (+名词) +as从句, 特别是句中有may, will, would, might等时。例如:

Try as he would, he coudn’t work out the problem.他虽然努力了, 仍然解不出那道难题。

以上是对as所引导的时间、原因、比较、条件、方式和让步等状语从句进行的例析和归纳。这些状语从句在英语中比较常见, 结构比较复杂, 故给学习带来一定的难度。在英语学习过程中, 我们若认真注意本文所论述过的内容和要领, 将会大大地提高对as所引导的多种状语从句的综合运用能力。

摘要：as可以用作关系副词、关系代词和连词。as在复合句中使用很广, 除了用来引导定语从句之外, 还可以用来引导状语从句和表语从句。本文就as作为连词引导的状语从句的用法及其表达方式等问题进行探讨。

关键词：as,状语从句,复合句

参考文献

[1]张道真.实用英语语法.外语教学与研究出版社

[2]徐立吾.当代英语实用语法.湖南教育出版社

[3]潘欢怀.现代英语实用句法.北京师范大学出版社

[4]李虹.英语初级语法.海南出版社

[5]丁往道.英语句子结构和动词用法详解.外语教学与研究出版社

What引导名词性从句用法透视 篇9

1. What用作代词, 在名词性从句中作主语、宾语、表语。

[含义] (1) “什么;怎么;……的;所……的”。

[经典例句]What you need is a good meal. (你所需要的是一顿美餐。) /Nobody knows what will happen next (没有人知道接下来将会发生什么。)

[典型考题] (1) He spoke proudly of his part in the game, without mentioning_____his teammates had done.

A.what B.which

C.why D.while

[分析]what引导宾语从句, wha在宾语从句中作的宾语。意思为:“没有提到他的队友所做的事。”wha相当于:the thing that (his teammates had done) 选A。

(2) _____makes this shop different is that it offers more personal services.

A.What B.Who

C.Whatever D.Whoever

[分析]what引导主语从句, what在主语从句中作主语。意思为:使这家商店与众不同的是它提供更多的个人服务。what相当于:the thing that (makes this shop different) 选A。

[含义] (2) “……的样子;面貌;状况”。

[经典例句]I am not what I was. (我不再是以前的样子了。) /He don’want to be what his parents want him to be. (他不想成为他父母想让他成为的样子。)

[典型考题] (1) Great changes have taken place in that school.It is no longer_____it was 20 years ago, _____it was so poorly equipped.

A.what when B.that which

C.what which D.which that

[分析]第一空what在表语从句中作表语。第二空when引导非限制性定语从句。意思为:那所学校不再是20年前的样子了。选A。

[含义] (3) “……的地方”。

[经典例句]A modern city has been set up in what was a wasteland ten years ago. (一座现代化城市已在十年前还是一片荒地的地方建起了。) /He is living in what used to be a temple. (他住在以前是个庙宇的地方。)

[典型考题]After five hours’drive, they reached_____they thought was the place they’d been dreaming of.

A.that B.where

C.which D.what

[分析]they thought是插入语, what在宾语从句中作主语。意思为:“……的地方”。选D。

[含义] (4) “……的时间”。

[经典例句]After what seemed to be a long time, he came back to life. (似乎过了很长时间之后, 他才苏醒过来。)

[典型考题]The boy dived into the water and after_____seemed to be a long time, he came up again.

A.which B.it

C.what D.that

[分析]what在宾语从句中作主语。表“……的时间”。选C。

[含义] (5) “……的速度”。

[典型考题]The other day, my brother drove his car down the street at_____Ithought was a dangerous speed.

A.as B.which

C.what D.that

[分析]what在宾语从句中作主语。I thought是插入语。选C。

2. What用作形容词或副词, 在名词性从句中作定语、表语或状语。

第一, 作定语。

[含义] (1) “什么;多么;多少”。

[经典例句]I don't know what book they are reading. (我不知道他们在读什么书。)

[典型例题]———Go and ask her come.

———OK.

A.what time would she like to

B.at what time she’d like to

C.when would she like to

D.when she likes to

[分析]宾语从句用陈述语序, what作定语修饰time。选B。

[含义] (2) “ (所) ……的 (事物或人) ”。

[经典例句]I will give them wha help I can. (我将尽我所能帮助他们。) /What family and friends I still have live abroad. (我现在所有的家人和朋友都住在国外。)

[典型例题]_____education he had was picked up from time to time under the pressure of necessity.

A.What B.Which

C.That D.When

[分析]what作education的定语。意思为:所受的教育。选A。

第二, 作状语, 后接little, few等, 意为“全部的……尽管不多;仅有的那么一点;小的;不重要的。”

[经典例句]I spend what little time I had with my family. (我仅有的那一点点时间都与家人一起度过。) /I wil lend you what few books I spare. (我愿意借给你所有我用不着的那几本书。)

[典型考题]The home improvements have taken what little there is_____my spare time.

A.from B.in C.of D.at

从句引导词 篇10

关键词：关系代词型“What”,连接代词“what”,先行词

关系代词型What引导的名词性从句在英语中经常出现, 它表达的意思往往令学习者感到困惑。尤其是初学者在阅读理解, 或英中对译, 或写作表达方面, 对引导名词性从句的关系代词型what的含义和用法极容易产生误解和错误。本文拟通过分析常见的what引导的名词性从句, 帮助读者弄清楚连接代词what与关系代词型what引导名词性从句的区别, 以及关系代词型what引导名词性从句的特别之处。

1.连接代词what引导名词性从句时, 实际上是其作为疑问代词的一种借用, 即将疑问代词what用作连词引导从句, 这时它表示的是一个问题。

⑴ It was clear enough what she meant.

她究竟是什么意思是再清楚不过的。

⑵ I don’t care what she thinks.

我不在乎她会怎么想。

⑶ Let me see what you’ve chosen.

让我看看你选的是什么。

⑷ I can’t describe to you what I felt at that moment.

我无法向你描述我当时是什么感觉。

⑸ You have no idea what I suffered.

你不了解我有多苦。

⑹ No one can tell what will happen next.

每人能够预见往后会发生什么。

⑺ I don’t know what motive he could have had.

我不知道他的动机是什么。

⑻ I asked him what clothes I should wear.

我问他我应该穿什么衣服。

⑼ What Miss Fulton did, Bertha didn’t know.

富尔顿小姐干啥的, 伯莎并不晓得。

⑽ You would have absolute freedom as to what researches you thought it best to pursue.

你认为从事何种研究最好, 你可以有绝对的自由。

对此, 有的语法学家提出了一个标准, 即在表示询问, 怀疑, 不肯定, 好奇的句子中, what引导从句时表示疑问, 通常译为“什么……?”以上各句中what引起的从句相当于一个特殊疑问句。

⑾ What did she mean?

⑿ What does she think?

⒀ What have you chosen?

⒁ What did I feel at that moment?

⒂ What did I suffer?

⒃ What will happen next?

⒄ What motive could she have had?

⒅ What clothes should I wear?

⒆ What did Miss Fulton do?

⒇ What researches did you think it best to pursue?

2.关系代词型what引导的名词性从句相当于带有定语从句作后置修饰语的名词词组, 即the things + that-clause或the persons + that-clause, 它表示的不是一个问题, 而是一件事情, 通常译为“ (所) …的 (东西) ”;“ (所) …的 (人) ”。

(21) What (=the things that) caused the accident is a complete mystery.

(所) 造成这场事故的原因还完全是个迷。

(22) What (= anything which) is done cannot be undone.

几成定局的事情无可挽回

(23) What (= the thing that) is one man’s meat is another’s poison.

对甲有利的事情未必对乙也有利。

(24) What (= anything that) snow conceals, the sun reveals.

积雪掩盖的东西, 太阳曝光之。 (若要人不知, 除非己不为)

(25) This book is just what (= the book that) I have been looking for.

这本书正是我所一直在找寻的那本书。

(26) The novel is what (= a novel that) people call a nonstop page turner.

这本小说是人们称之为引人入胜、欲罢不能的那种作品。

(27) Do not put off till tomorrow what (= the things that) you can do today.

今天可以干好的事情绝不要拖到明天。

(28) Don’t criticize what (= the things that) you don’t understand.

不可批判自己不能理解的事物。

(29) I can’t make out what (= the things that) you are talking about.

我无法理解你所谈论的事情。

(30) There is in English what (= a metaphor that) we call the “mixed metaphor”, an unhappy marriage of two different figures of speech.

英语里有一种我们称之为“混杂隐喻”的东西, 即两种不同的修辞格的生硬结合。

例句 (21) — (30) 中what引导的从句并不表示疑问意思, 因此不可改写成特殊疑问句。此外, 关系代词型what由于已经包含了先行词 (thing或things;that或 those;person或persons) , 它与通常引导定语从句的关系代词that, which, who不同。

(31) Philip was depressed by what ( = those that) he had gone through.

菲利普的苦难经历使他感到很消沉。

(32) He seemed to have forgotten all that he had gone through.

他似乎把他受的苦全忘了。

(33) Rachel was what (= the kind of person who ) was known as a Don

Quixote.

雷切尔就是那种人们称之为不切实际的理想主义者。

The man who was sick is now well.

患病那个人现在好了。

例 (31) 、 (33) 中的关系代词型what由于在意义上已经包含有先行词those, the kind of person, 所以在它前面不需要在加其他名词性短语。例 (32) 、 (34) 中的关系代词that, who必须跟在先行词之后, 所以在其前面必须用别的名词性短语, all, the man。

3.关系型代词what在意义上具有特指和泛指的区别。关系型代词what表示特指的有如上述的例 (21) 、 (23) 、 (25) 、 (27) 、 (28) 、 (29) , 再如:

(35) What (特指 = that which) caused the accident was a broken bottle.

造成事故的原因是一只破瓶子。

(36) Quality is what (特指= that which) counts most..

质量是最重要的方面。

关系型代词what表示泛指的有如例 (22) 、 (24) 、 (26) 、 (30) 。关系型代词what表示泛指时, 其包含的先行词相当于一个不定代词, 它引导的从句表示不必或不可能说得十分具体的事物:

(37) What (泛指 = anything which ) caused the accident has not yet been found.

是什么原因造成这一事故目前还没有弄清楚。

(38) What (泛指= anything which ) she looks like doesn’t matter.

她长相怎么样无关重要。

关系代词型what具有的泛指意义可通过复合词whatever得到强调, 但实际上二者常常起相同的作用, 只不过whatever表示泛指的意义更突出一些。

(39) Well, I’ll do what (= anything that) I can.

对了, 我要尽力而为。

(40) I’ll do whatever (= anything that) you wish.

你想要我干什么, 我就干什么。

(41) They did what (= all that) they could to console her.

他们尽量安慰她。

(42) Whatever (= anything that) she says goes.

她说怎么样就怎么样。

(43) Give me what (= anything that) there is.

有什么就给我什么。

(44) Whatever (= all that) I have is at your service.

我所有的一切都任由你使用。

4.关系型代词what包含的先行词表示的意思既可以是单数 (the thing which, anything that) , 也可以是复数 (the things which; those which, all that) ;既可以指物, 又可以指人 (the person that) :

(45) As a friend of yours, I want to tell you what (=all that ) I hear.

作为你的朋友, 我要告诉你我听到的一切。

(46) I should like to be a teacher. That’s what (=the kind of person that) I want to be.

我想做一位老师, 那是我心向往之的理想。

(47) It was a small place then compared to what (=the place that ) it is now.

和今天的规模相比, 那里当时仅仅是个小地方。

已如前述, 关系代词型what具有泛指意义, 它所表示的内容从what本身是看不出来的。这时可以根据关系代词型what引导的从句中的动词来进行推敲和理解, 就不难确定what表达的意思。

(42) She was no happy at what he had said.

她对他说的话感到不快。

(43) But what follows is the narrative of his experience.

而以下内容是叙述他的人生经历。

(44) What she saw gave her a little fright.

她见到的景象使她感到有些害怕。

关系代词型what的含义与用法与其说是个语法问题, 不如说是英语中的一个表达习惯。英语学习者经过大量阅读、细心体会和反复练习, 必能熟练掌握它的特点, 在翻译, 写作实践中加以灵活运用, 曲尽其妙。

参考文献

[1]张道真.实用英语语法.商务印书馆, 1979.

[2]章振邦.新编英语语法.上海译文出版社, 1983.

[3]张道真.现代英语用法词典.上海译文出版社, 1987.

[4]费致德.现代英语惯用法词典.商务印书馆, 1987.